Question

Research on avoidance learning suggests that a fear response is acquired through _______ conditioning; the avoidance response is maintained as a result of ______ conditioning. A. classical; operant B. operant; classical C. classical; classical D. operant; operant

Short answer

Answer: The conditioning types involved are classical conditioning for the acquisition of a fear response and operant conditioning for the maintenance of the avoidance response.

Step-by-step solution

Classical conditioning involves learning through association; an originally neutral stimulus comes to evoke a response after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus. Operant conditioning, on the other hand, involves learning through consequences; a behavior is strengthened or weakened based on positive or negative reinforcements or punishments. #Step 2: Identify the conditioning involved in acquiring a fear response.#

In avoidance learning, a fear response is acquired when something neutral (e.g., a tone) is paired with something aversive or harmful (e.g., a shock). This association leads to the neutral stimulus eventually eliciting a fear response. This process is an example of classical conditioning. #Step 3: Identify the conditioning involved in maintaining the avoidance response.#

Once the fear response is acquired, the avoidance behavior is maintained because it reduces the fear or prevents the aversive outcome (e.g., a shock). This behavior is strengthened over time due to the negative reinforcement of avoiding the aversive stimulus. This process is an example of operant conditioning. #Step 4: Choose the correct answer.#

Based on these classifications, we can conclude that the acquisition of a fear response occurs through classical conditioning, and the maintenance of the avoidance response occurs due to operant conditioning. Therefore, the correct answer is: A. classical; operant

Key concepts

Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning is a fundamental psychological concept first elucidated by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist. It operates on the principle that a neutral stimulus can become associated with an inherently meaningful stimulus through repetition and pairing. This form of learning is passive, where an automatic conditioned response is elicited after pairing the neutral stimulus (also known as a conditioned stimulus) with an unconditioned stimulus — something that naturally and automatically triggers a response.

For example, imagine a dog that salivates when it sees food (unconditioned response to an unconditioned stimulus). If you consistently ring a bell (neutral stimulus) before presenting the food, eventually the dog will begin to salivate at the sound of the bell alone. The bell has become a conditioned stimulus, and salivating to the bell is the conditioned response. This process beautifully illustrates how fear response acquisition occurs in avoidance learning—An initially neutral scenario can through classical conditioning, take on the power to evoke a fear response.

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning, introduced by B.F. Skinner, is a method of learning that employs rewards and punishments for behavior. Here, an individual's behavior is modified by its consequences; the behavior might be followed by reinforcement, which increases the likelihood of the behavior recurring, or punishment, which decreases its occurrence.

Unlike classical conditioning, operant conditioning involves behavior that is 'operated' on the environment and is under voluntary control. For instance, if you study diligently (behavior) and receive high grades (positive reinforcement), you're more likely to repeat the studying behavior. On the flip side, if studying results in losing time for social activities (negative punishment), you might be less inclined to hit the books. Operant conditioning explains the maintenance of the avoidance response in avoidance learning—once a fear response to the conditioned stimulus is established, avoiding the stimulus or situation is negatively reinforced by the relief from fear.

Fear Response Acquisition

Fear response acquisition refers to the process through which a previously neutral event begins to elicit a fear response after being associated with something aversive. It's the initial learning phase in the avoidance learning process. This typically involves classical conditioning, where the brain links the neutral stimulus (such as a sound) with an aversive stimulus (like a shock) that naturally causes pain or fear.

Over time, this association becomes strong enough that the neutral stimulus alone can trigger a fear reaction. This involuntary reaction becomes a pivotal factor in developing phobias or anxiety-related conditions, underscoring the powerful role that associative learning plays in emotional and psychological states.

Negative Reinforcement

Negative reinforcement is critical to understanding operant conditioning. Unlike punishment, which seeks to reduce a behavior, negative reinforcement aims to increase a behavior by removing an unpleasant stimulus. Importantly, 'negative' does not imply bad but rather the subtraction of something from the environment.

Take, for example, you put on sunscreen to avoid getting sunburned; the removal of the discomforting prospect of a sunburn reinforces the behavior of applying sunscreen. In the context of avoidance learning, once a fear response is acquired, engaging in avoidance behaviors is negatively reinforced — the individual learns that by avoiding the fear-inducing stimulus, they prevent an unpleasant experience, thereby reinforcing the avoidance behavior. This demonstrates how avoidance learning operates through negative reinforcement to maintain the fear-avoidance cycle.