Question

Johanna was asked to remember a string of letters. She heard x during the presentation of the letters. In her brain, this input was changed into the neural code s. Later, when she was asked to recall the letters, Johanna included \(s,\) not \(x,\) in her list. Johanna most likely made this error on the recall test due to an error in the phase of memory. a. encoding b. retrieval c. creation d. storage

Short answer

a. encoding

Step-by-step solution

Understand the given situation

Johanna heard a string of letters x and her brain changed this input into the neural code s. When recalling the letters, Johanna used the code s instead of the original x. This indicates an error occurred during one of the memory processes. We need to identify which memory phase is most likely responsible for her error.

Analyze the memory phases

There are four memory phases mentioned in the exercise: encoding, retrieval, creation, and storage. Let's analyze them one by one: a. Encoding: This is the initial process of converting the information into a form that can be stored and recalled. In Johanna's case, the original information (x) was transformed into the neural code (s). b. Retrieval: This process involves accessing and bringing information from memory storage to consciousness. In Johanna's case, she was able to recall the code s instead of x, meaning the information was indeed retrieved. c. Creation: This phase is not a standard phase in memory processing and might refer to the initial creation of the information. Since Johanna was given the information, this phase is not relevant to her error. d. Storage: This phase involves maintaining information in memory over time. The neural code s was stored in Johanna's memory, but the original information (x) is not stored or has been distorted.

Identify the phase responsible for the error

Analyzing each phase, we can conclude that Johanna's error is most likely due to an error during the encoding phase of memory. This is because she recalls the neural code s, not the original information x, which means the information might have been distorted or misrepresented when initially processed in her brain. So the answer is: a. encoding

Key concepts

Encoding

In psychology, encoding refers to the initial stage of the memory process, where information is converted into a form that can be processed and stored by the brain. Imagine encoding as the act of translating data into a language that your brain can understand and save for later use. For instance, when Johanna heard the string of letters, her brain needed to transform this auditory information into a mental representation, or neural code, that could be remembered.

Encoding can be influenced by several factors such as attention and sensory input, and it can take various forms like visual, acoustic, or semantic. If there is an error during this phase, as was the case with Johanna, the information may be encoded incorrectly, leading to a potential misunderstanding or alteration of the original information at the time of recall.

Retrieval

Retrieval is the process of accessing information stored in memory and bringing it into consciousness. It's like searching for a file in a cabinet – if it was filed correctly, it should be readily accessible. However, even if information is accurately encoded and stored, retrieval can fail if the memory cues are not effective or if interference from other information occurs.

There are different types of retrieval processes, such as recall and recognition. Recall involves reproducing information from memory (as in an essay test), while recognition involves identifying information in the presence of cues (as in a multiple-choice test). Johanna's issue was not with retrieval since she did remember the neural code s; rather, her problem occurred because the encoded neural code was incorrect to begin with.

Memory Errors

Memory errors can occur at any stage of the memory process, including encoding, storage, and retrieval. Common types of memory errors include misattribution, suggestibility, bias, and transience. For example, Johanna's memory error arose from an encoding issue, meaning the information was altered or misrepresented from the start.

Being aware of these different types of memory errors can help us develop strategies to minimize their occurrence and understand that our memories are not always an accurate record of past events. Effective methods to reduce memory errors include using mnemonic devices, practicing spaced repetition, and ensuring a deep understanding during the learning process.

Neural Code

The concept of neural code refers to the way in which information is represented and processed by the networks of neurons in the brain. It's the 'language' that the brain uses to encode sensory inputs, thoughts, and memories. Neural codes vary depending on the type of information, for instance, a visual scene might be represented differently from a string of numbers or letters.

To grasp the idea of neural code, consider how a computer uses binary code to represent information. Similarly, the brain has its system to code for different stimuli. The transformation of Johanna's heard letters into a neural code is a concrete example of encoding, highlighting how sensory input is converted into a format suitable for the brain's memory systems.