Question

Hookahs are waterpipes used for smoking flavored tobacco. One study \({ }^{13}\) of 3770 university students in North Carolina found that \(40 \%\) had smoked a hookah at least once, with many claiming that the hookah smoke is safer than cigarette smoke. However, a second study observed people at a hookah bar and recorded the length of the session, the frequency of puffing, and the depth of inhalation. An average session lasted one hour and the smoke inhaled from an average session was equal to the smoke in more than 100 cigarettes. Finally, a third study measured the amount of tar, nicotine, and heavy metals in samples of hookah smoke, finding that the water in a hookah filters out only a very small percentage of these chemicals. Based on these studies and others, many states are introducing laws to ban or limit hookah bars. In each of the three studies, identify the individual cases, the variables, and whether each variable is quantitative or categorical.

Short answer

In Study 1, the individual cases are university students and variables are the students and their hookah smoking status, both are categorical. In Study 2, the cases are people at a hookah bar with variables being session length, puffing frequency, and inhalation depth, all quantitative. In Study 3, the cases are hookah smoke samples and the variables are amounts of tar, nicotine, heavy metals, and the percentage filtered, all are quantitative.

Step-by-step solution

Identify Individual Cases and Variables for Study 1

The individual cases in the first study are the 3770 university students in North Carolina. The variables are the students and whether or not they have smoked a hookah. The variable 'Students' is categorical, while 'Whether or not they have smoked a hookah' is also categorical.

Identify Individual Cases and Variables for Study 2

The individual cases in the second study are the people observed at a hookah bar. The variables are the length of the session, the frequency of puffing, and the depth of inhalation. Each of these variables is quantitative as they refer to measured quantities.

Identify Individual Cases and Variables for Study 3

The individual cases in the third study are the samples of hookah smoke analyzed. The variables are the amounts of tar, nicotine, and heavy metals found in the smoke and the percentage of these chemicals filtered out by the water in a hookah. All of these variables are quantitative because they involve quantities that can be measured