Question

English and the Austronesian language Mbarbaram both use the word "dog" for canines. These two languages are unrelated, and since speakers of the two languages only came in contact with one another long after the word "dog" was first used in this way in either language, neither language could have borrowed the word from the other. Thus this case shows that sometimes when languages share words that are similar in sound and meaning the similarity is due neither to language relatedness nor to borrowing. The argument requires that which one of the following be assumed? (A) English and Mbarbaram share no words other than "dog." (B) Several languages besides English and Mbarbaram use "dog" as the word for canines. (C) Usually when two languages share a word, those languages are related to each other. (D) There is no third language from which both English and Mbarbaram borrowed the word "dog." (E) If two unrelated languages share a word, speakers of those two languages must have come in contact with one another at some time.

Short answer

Option D: There is no third language from which both English and Mbarbaram borrowed "dog."

Step-by-step solution

Identify the Argument's Main Point

The argument claims that the similarity between the word "dog" in English and Mbarbaram is neither due to language relatedness nor borrowing between the two languages.

Recognize the Assumption's Role

To support the claim that the similarities in the word "dog" between English and Mbarbaram are not due to borrowing or relatedness, an assumption must fill the gap in reasoning that could otherwise suggest another source for this similarity.

Analyze Each Option

Evaluate each provided option to determine which one strengthens the argument by ensuring that no other possibility (such as a common source language) explains why "dog" is used in both English and Mbarbaram.

Eliminate Irrelevant Choices

Consider Option A, B, C, and E: All these options either introduce unrelated information or imply conditions that do not directly strengthen the argument, such as sharing words beyond "dog" or historical interaction between speakers.

Focus On Option D

Option D states that there is no third language from which both languages borrowed the word "dog." By assuming this, the argument is strengthened because it eliminates the possibility that a shared third source language is the reason for the similarity, thus supporting the argument’s conclusion.

Key concepts

Language Borrowing

When it comes to languages, borrowing words is a common phenomenon. This happens when one language takes words from another due to cultural or social interaction. The borrowed word usually assimilates into the borrowing language's grammar and pronunciation rules. For example, English has borrowed several terms from Latin and French over the centuries.

• Borrowed words can enrich a language by adding new vocabulary.
• This process often occurs in regions where different language groups interact closely.
• Sometimes, borrowed words retain their original meanings, while other times, they might evolve differently in the borrowing language.

Language borrowing implies some degree of connection or contact between the groups of speakers. So, when two unrelated languages share a word, as with English and Mbarbaram with "dog," borrowing as an explanation requires historical contact which was absent here, ruling out this possibility.

Unrelated Languages

Languages are often grouped into families based on common ancestral languages. For instance, Spanish and Italian are both Romance languages stemming from Latin. In contrast, unrelated languages do not share such direct common ancestry, despite possibly developing independently similar structures or words.

• Recognizing language relationships typically involves examining both vocabulary and grammar.
• Unrelated languages can still develop similarities due to coincidental developments or parallel evolution.
• These similarities often arise in basic vocabulary as humans experience similar needs globally.

In our exercise, English and Mbarbaram are described as unrelated, indicating their vocabulary similarities are not due to shared ancestry. This must be confirmed to support the statement that neither borrowed nor inherited the word "dog" from a shared ancestor.

Argument Assumption

An assumption in logical reasoning serves as an unstated premise or belief that underpins the argument's conclusion. The argument in our exercise hinges on the idea that the word "dog" in English and Mbarbaram has no connection beyond coincidence.

• The argument assumes there is no common third language both might have borrowed from.
• Evaluating assumptions helps identify any implicit reliance on unmentioned factors.
• Critical examination of these assumptions is key to either strengthening or refuting the argument.

Option D is pivotal in affirming that no third language provided the term "dog," thus strengthening the conclusion by excluding alternative sources and supporting the argument’s original claim of unrelated development.

Austronesian Languages

Austronesian languages form a family with over a thousand languages spoken across Southeast Asia, Madagascar, the Pacific Islands, and parts of continental Asia. This vast group showcases a broad range of linguistic features and diverse cultures.

• Austronesian languages are known for their shared linguistic roots, which are often reflected in their vocabulary and grammatical structures.
• Mbarbaram, despite being noted as an Austronesian language, shares specific vocabulary with non-Austronesian languages like English in unique cases.
• Analysis of Austronesian languages provides insights into language evolution, borrowing, and development.

The exercise's mention of Mbarbaram as Austronesian underscores the intriguing nature of the linguistic coincidence with English. Such studies highlight the unpredictable nature of language development and interaction, even among distinct linguistic families.