Question

What are the Fed's two new policy tools, and why does the Fed now need to rely on them to change the federal funds rate?

Short answer

The Federal Reserve's two new policy tools are the payment of interest on reserves (IOR) and the overnight reverse repurchase agreements (ON RRPs). The Fed needs these tools to influence the federal funds rate when there are excess reserves in the system, as the traditional method of open market operations is less effective in such a situation.

Step-by-step solution

Identify the New Policy Tools

The Federal Reserve's two new policy tools are the payment of interest on reserves (IOR) and the overnight reverse repurchase agreements (ON RRPs). These new tools are used along with open market operations to influence the federal funds rate.

Explain why the Fed needs these tools

The Fed needs these tools because the traditional method of open market operations became less effective after the financial crisis of 2008. The traditional method involves buying and selling government securities to increase or decrease the amount of reserves in the system, which impacts the federal funds rate. However, in a situation where there are excess reserves in the system, as was the case after the financial crisis due to the unconventional policy of quantitative easing, this method is not as effective. The new tools, specifically the payment of interest on reserves, helps the Fed to put a floor under the federal funds rate, as banks are less likely to lend reserves in the federal funds market at a rate lower than what they can earn on their reserves held at the Fed. The ON RRPs supplement this by providing a substitute to the federal funds market for a range of other financial institutions, and therefore helping to reinforce the floor under the federal funds rate.

Key concepts

Interest on Reserves

The Federal Reserve's policy tool known as Interest on Reserves (IOR) refers to the interest that the Federal Reserve pays to banks on the excess reserves they hold at the central bank. This tool functions as a floor for the federal funds rate, influencing the interest rates throughout the economy.

By paying interest on reserves, the Fed provides banks with an incentive to hold their excess reserves rather than lending them out at a lower rate. If the Fed wishes to raise interest rates, it increases the IOR rate, which in turn encourages banks to keep more money deposited with the Fed as opposed to lending it out. Conversely, lowering the IOR rate usually leads banks to seek higher returns through loans, which injects liquidity into the economy.

Overnight Reverse Repurchase Agreements

An Overnight Reverse Repurchase Agreement (ON RRP) is a short-term financial instrument used by the Federal Reserve to manage liquidity. It involves selling securities to financial institutions with the agreement to purchase them back the next day. Think of it like a one-night loan, with securities as collateral.

The use of ON RRPs helps set a floor on short-term interest rates, complementing the IOR in ensuring that the federal funds rate does not fall below the target set by the Fed. By absorbing cash from the financial system through these agreements, the Fed can limit the supply of reserves, preventing the federal funds rate from dropping too low due to excess liquidity.

Federal Funds Rate

The federal funds rate is the interest rate at which banks lend reserve balances to each other overnight. It's a critical benchmark for other interest rates and reflects the cost of interbank borrowing. The Federal Reserve's goal in adjusting this rate is to influence monetary conditions and the overall economy.

To use this tool, the Fed sets a target range for the rate and then adjusts its policy tools, such as IOR and ON RRPs, to steer the market rate within this range. When the Fed wants to stimulate the economy, it lowers the target range; to cool down an overheated economy, it raises the target.

Open Market Operations

Open Market Operations (OMO) entail the buying and selling of government securities in the open market to regulate the supply of money that banks have at their disposal. By conducting OMOs, the Fed can influence the federal funds rate.

When the Fed buys securities, it increases the reserves of banks, encouraging lending and reducing the federal funds rate. Selling securities does the opposite, absorbing bank reserves, hence hiking the rate. OMOs are the Fed's primary tool for implementing monetary policy, used to manage inflation and spur economic growth.

Quantitative Easing

Quantitative Easing (QE) is an unconventional monetary policy tool used by the Fed to inject liquidity into the economy during times of financial crisis or when conventional monetary policy is ineffective.

Under QE, the Fed creates new money to buy vast amounts of financial assets, such as longer-term Treasuries and mortgage-backed securities. This process lowers interest rates on those securities and encourages investment and consumption, which can stimulate the economy. QE also increases the amount of reserves in the banking system, which the Fed must then manage using tools like IOR and ON RRPs to control the federal funds rate.