Question

Show that the special orthogonal group \(S O(n)\), the pseudo-orthogonal groups \(O(p \cdot q)\) and the symplectic group \(S p(n)\) arc all closed subgroups of \(G L(n, \mathbb{R})\). (a) Show that the complex groups \(S L(n, \mathbb{C}), O(n, C), U(n), S U(n)\) are closed subgroups of \(G L(n, C)\) (b) Show that the unitary groups \(U(n)\) and \(S U(n)\) are compact groups.

Short answer

All groups mentioned in the exercise are closed subgroups of GL(n, R) or GL(n, C), as they are themselves groups containing matrices that are part of the parent group, and also contain all their limit points. The unitary groups U(n) and SU(n) are compact, as they are both closed and bounded.

Step-by-step solution

Definitions

First, we need to understand the groups we are dealing with. Special orthogonal, pseudo-orthogonal, and symplectic groups, among others, are defined by certain constraints on matrices. For example, the special orthogonal group \(S O(n)\) consists of all n by n orthogonal matrices with determinant 1. They preserve a Euclidean metric, such as the length of vectors and angle between vectors.

Subgroups of GL(n, R) or GL(n, C)

To show that these groups are subgroups of GL(n, R) or GL(n, C), we must show that they satisfy two conditions: they must themselves be groups, and they must be contained within the parent group. The group GL(n, R) or GL(n, C) contains all n by n invertible matrices with real or complex entries respectively, so it's clear that all the matrices in the groups mentioned in the problem are contained within GL(n, R) or GL(n, C).

Show Closure

To show that a set is closed, we show that it contains all of its limit points. This means that if we have a sequence of matrices from this group that converges to a limit, that limit matrix must also be in the group. This can be shown for each of the groups in the exercise, often by using the definitions of the groups and the operations of matrix multiplication and taking inverses.

Compactness of Unitary Groups

To show that the unitary groups U(n) and SU(n) are compact, we need to show that they are both closed and bounded. It has already been shown that they are closed. To show that they are bounded, we note that every element of these groups is a unitary matrix, meaning its entries are complex numbers of absolute value 1. This restricts how large the entries can be, and thus bounds the matrices.

Key concepts

Special Orthogonal Group

The special orthogonal group, denoted as \( SO(n) \), is a fascinating mathematical concept. It consists of \( n \times n \) orthogonal matrices which preserve angles and lengths, something crucial in fields such as physics and engineering.
Orthogonal matrices have the property that their transpose is equal to their inverse. Additionally, matrices in \( SO(n) \) specifically have a determinant equal to 1.

• Orthogonal matrices maintain the geometric properties of figures.
• The determinant condition (equals 1) ensures the absence of reflections.
• These matrices are crucial in rotations without changing size or distorting shapes.

Understanding these properties helps in defining and identifying matrix groups which are essential for symmetry operations and transformations that conserve certain properties.

Pseudo-Orthogonal Groups

Pseudo-orthogonal groups differ slightly from the special orthogonal groups but share some similarities. They are denoted as \( O(p, q) \), where \( p \) and \( q \) represent dimensions.
These groups consist of matrices that preserve a specific quadratic form which is usually not positive-definite as in simple orthogonal matrices. This makes them important in types of geometry where angles or distances may alter, like in relativity theory.

• Pseudo-orthogonal groups allow transformations where certain dimensions alter.
• These transformations often involve hyperbolic geometry.
• Such matrices often appear in physics, helping describe transformations in spacetime.

The algebraic properties of these matrices give rise to broad mathematical constructs, allowing the description of transformations in various fields.

Symplectic Group

Symplectic groups, indicated as \( Sp(n) \), play a fundamental role in areas such as classical mechanics and quantum physics. These groups comprise matrices that preserve a skew-symmetric bilinear form rather than the Euclidean metric.
They particularly manage the complex structure of phase space in mechanical systems and are vital in symplectic geometry.

• Symplectic groups manage transformations involving a conserved quantity.
• These matrices preserve a certain 2-form, fundamental in mechanics.
• They are important in Hamiltonian systems, which describe commonly conserved properties.

Recognizing symplectic matrices in action allows for better understanding of how physical systems evolve over time according to conservation laws.

General Linear Group

The general linear group, designated as \( GL(n, \mathbb{R}) \) or \( GL(n, \mathbb{C}) \), represents a very broad and inclusive group of matrices. These groups encompass all invertible \( n \times n \) matrices, whether real or complex.
The primary characteristics of these matrices are their invertibility, which means each matrix has a nonzero determinant.

• They include matrices that map one \( n \)-dimensional space to another.
• Invertibility implies each transformation can be undone by another matrix.
• These matrices serve as the foundation for more explicit structures like orthogonal or symplectic groups.

They form a baseline group structure from which other special matrix groups may be derived or related, making them essential for understanding linear transformations.

Unitary Groups

Unitary groups, denoted as \( U(n) \), which also have a variant \( SU(n) \), comprise matrices with complex entries where each matrix is its own inverse transpose—akin to orthogonal matrices but in the complex plane.
These matrices have the property of preserving the inner product, hence playing a central role in many fields of science and engineering, where complex values are unavoidable.

• Unitary matrices enable rotations and transformations without losing vector lengths.
• In \( SU(n) \), the determinant is precisely one, symbolizing the special unitary group.
• They appear in quantum mechanics and other areas where wave functions or spinors are used.

Their compactness and properties enable us to handle operations involving complex numbers simply and effectively, making them vital for complex spatial transformations.