Question

For any pair of subspaces \(H\) and \(K\) of the extenor algebra \(\Lambda^{*}(M)\), set \(H \wedge K\) to be the vector subspace spanned by all \(\alpha \wedge \beta\) where \(\alpha \in H, \beta \in K .\) Show that \(\left(\right.\) a) \(Z^{P}(M) \wedge Z^{\Psi}(M) \subseteq Z^{p+\varphi}(M)\) (b) \(Z^{P}(M) \wedge B^{\vartheta}(M) \subseteq B^{p+q}(M)\) (c) \(B^{P}(M) \wedge B^{Q}(M) \subseteq B^{p+q}(M)\)

Short answer

The three inclusions follow directly from definitions of exact and closed forms, and use of the Leibniz rule for the exterior derivative. We have proved the statements (a) \(Z^{P}(M) \wedge Z^{\Psi}(M) \subseteq Z^{p+\varphi}(M)\), (b) \(Z^{P}(M) \wedge B^{\vartheta}(M) \subseteq B^{p+q}(M)\), and (c) \(B^{P}(M) \wedge B^{Q}(M) \subseteq B^{p+q}(M)\) are all true.

Step-by-step solution

Introduction and Definitions

For a subspace \(H\) and a subspace \(K\) of an extenor algebra \(\Lambda^{*}(M)\), we define \(H \wedge K\) as the vector subspace that is spanned by all elements of the form \(\alpha \wedge \beta\) where \(\alpha \in H, \beta \in K\). \(Z^{p}(M)\) is defined as the closed forms, \(B^{p}(M)\) as exact forms. To proceed, we need to review what these forms are and some facts about their operations.

Prove \(Z^{P}(M) \wedge Z^{\Psi}(M) \subseteq Z^{p+\varphi}(M)\)

We're trying to show that for \(\alpha \in Z^{p}(M)\), \(\beta \in Z^{\Psi}(M)\), it holds that \(\alpha \wedge \beta \in Z^{p+\Psi}(M)\), that means if \(\alpha\) and \(\beta\) are closed forms, \(\alpha \wedge \beta\) should also be closed. From the definition, a form is closed if its exterior derivative is zero: \(d\alpha =0\), \(d\beta =0\). Our task is to prove \(d(\alpha \wedge \beta) = 0\). Using the property of the exterior derivative \(d(\alpha \wedge \beta) = d\alpha \wedge \beta + (-1)^{p} \alpha \wedge d\beta\), and substitute \(d\alpha = 0\), \(d\beta = 0\), we get \(d(\alpha \wedge \beta) = 0\) which implies \(\alpha \wedge \beta\) is a closed form.

Prove \(Z^{P}(M) \wedge B^{\vartheta}(M) \subseteq B^{p+q}(M)\)

Similarly as in step 2, we consider \(\alpha \in Z^{p}(M)\) and \(\beta \in B^{\Psi}(M)\). But this time \(\beta\) is exact form - which means there is some \(\gamma\) such that \(d\gamma = \beta\). We need to prove that \(\alpha \wedge \beta\) is also exact. Using the Leibniz rule \(d(\alpha \wedge \gamma) = d\alpha \wedge \gamma + (-1)^{p} \alpha \wedge d\gamma = d\alpha \wedge \gamma + (-1)^{p} \alpha \wedge \beta\). Since \(d\alpha = 0\), it follows that \(d(\alpha \wedge \beta)\) is exact.

Prove \(B^{P}(M) \wedge B^{Q}(M) \subseteq B^{p+q}(M)\)

For \(\alpha \in B^{p}(M)\), \(\beta \in B^{q}(M)\), we have some \(\gamma_1\) and \(\gamma_2\) such that \(d\gamma_1 = \alpha\), \(d\gamma_2 = \beta\) because \(\alpha\) and \(\beta\) are exact forms. Applying the Leibniz rule we have \(d(\gamma_1 \wedge \gamma_2) = d\gamma_1 \wedge \gamma_2 + (-1)^{p} \gamma_1 \wedge d\gamma_2 = \alpha \wedge \gamma_2 + (-1)^{p} \gamma_1 \wedge \beta\). As a result \(\alpha \wedge \beta\) is also exact.

Key concepts

Closed Forms

In exterior algebra, a **closed form** is an important concept for understanding differential forms in a manifold. A differential form \( \alpha \) is said to be closed if its exterior derivative is zero. Symbolically, this is expressed as \( d\alpha = 0 \).

The idea here is that closed forms represent conditions where there is no local variation---they're the analog of "conserved quantities" in physics. They're considered "conserved" because they don't change as you move along the manifold. If you're working in vector calculus, this property relates to vector fields without divergence, such as a magnetic field in a vacuum.

• Closed forms are significant in topology and geometry because they reflect properties of the spaces they inhabit.
• In practice, if you're given a form and you want to show it's closed, you can directly compute and check its exterior derivative.

The closed nature of a form can be crucial in solving problems in algebraic topology and theoretical physics by showing an underlying continuity or symmetry in the system being observed.

Exact Forms

An **exact form** is a form that can be expressed as the exterior derivative of another form. In other words, \( \beta \) is exact if there exists another form \( \gamma \) such that \( d\gamma = \beta \). This relationship is expressed mathematically as \( \beta = d\gamma \).

Exact forms share a deep connection with closed forms due to the fact that every exact form is closed (since \( d(d\gamma) = 0 \) by the property of the exterior derivative). However, the reverse is not always true globally, which is a concept encapsulated in the Poincaré lemma: locally every closed form is exact, given a suitable topology.

• In terms of applications, exact forms often represent potential functions in physics, such as the gravitational potential or electric potential.
• Recognizing a form as exact can simplify problems significantly as it helps identify other properties or simplifications relevant to the specific problem domain.

This distinction between closed and exact forms leads to the rich interplay between form theory and topology.

Exterior Derivative

The **exterior derivative** is a fundamental operator in the study of differential forms. It extends the concept of differentiation to forms, letting us express calculus-like operations on manifolds. For a form \( \alpha \), its exterior derivative is denoted by \( d\alpha \).

The exterior derivative has two important properties:

• It is linear, meaning \( d(\alpha + \beta) = d\alpha + d\beta \).
• It satisfies the generalized product rule known as the Leibniz rule: \( d(\alpha \wedge \beta) = d\alpha \wedge \beta + (-1)^p \alpha \wedge d\beta \), where \( p \) is the degree of \( \alpha \).

It also has the key property that \( d(d\alpha) = 0 \) for any form \( \alpha \), implying that each exact form's derivative is zero.

Through these operations, the exterior derivative generalizes concepts like gradient, curl, and divergence from vector calculus, but provides more flexibility to work on complex, multidimensional manifolds beyond flat Euclidean spaces.

Wedge Product

The **wedge product** is a binary operation used in exterior algebra, which combines forms to produce a new form. For forms \( \alpha \) and \( \beta \), the wedge product is denoted as \( \alpha \wedge \beta \).

This operation is associative, anti-commutative \( \alpha \wedge \beta = -\beta \wedge \alpha \) if the forms are of the same degree, and it distributes over addition. The degree of the resulting form is the sum of the degrees of \( \alpha \) and \( \beta \).

• Associativity ensures that the order of applying wedge products in sequences does not impact the result.
• Anti-commutativity implies that swapping two forms changes the sign of the product, which is critical in computations involving orientation or signed area/volume calculations.

This operation extends our capability to express multi-dimensional oriented volumes, making it invaluable in tools like integration on manifolds and in the formulation of conservation laws in physics. Understanding the wedge product equips one with the ability to manipulate and combine forms in complex, high-dimensional spaces.