Question

Below are shown the hydrogen bonds that form between the \(C-G\) and \(A-T\) pairs of bases. What type of functional groups are involved in hydrogen bonding? Why does the A-T pair form only two hydrogen bonds and not three?

Short answer

The functional groups involved in hydrogen bonding between DNA base pairs are amino groups, carbonyl groups, and imino groups. In C-G base pairs, three hydrogen bonds are formed because they have ample functional groups to donate and accept hydrogen atoms. However, A-T base pairs form only two hydrogen bonds due to the limited availability of functional groups capable of participating in hydrogen bonding.

Step-by-step solution

Identifying DNA base pairs and hydrogen bonding

In DNA, there are four bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). These bases pair with each other to form the structure of the DNA double helix, with A pairing with T and G pairing with C. The nitrogenous bases interact through hydrogen bonds, which stabilize the DNA structure.

Identifying functional groups in DNA base pairs

The nitrogenous bases involved in hydrogen bonding contain specific functional groups that can donate or accept hydrogen atoms. Generally, the functional groups involved in hydrogen bonding in these base pairs include amino groups, carbonyl groups, and imino groups. The amino groups (-NH2) can serve as hydrogen bond donors, while the carbonyl groups (C=O) and imino groups (=N-) can serve as hydrogen bond acceptors.

Describing hydrogen bonding in C-G pairs

In a C-G base pair, there are three hydrogen bonds formed. The cytosine contains an amino group that can donate a hydrogen bond to the oxygen of the guanine's carbonyl group. Similarly, one of the nitrogen atoms in the cytosine's imino group can donate a hydrogen bond to the amino group of the guanine. Lastly, another nitrogen atom in the guanine's imino group donates a hydrogen bond to the oxygen of the carbonyl group of cytosine.

Describing hydrogen bonding in A-T pairs

In an A-T base pair, there are only two hydrogen bonds formed. The adenine contains an amino group that can donate a hydrogen atom to the oxygen in the thymine's carbonyl group. The thymine also has an amino group that donates a hydrogen atom to the nitrogen in the adenine's imino group. There are no additional functional groups capable of donating or accepting hydrogen atoms in the A-T base pair, which is why only two hydrogen bonds are formed.

Summary

The functional groups involved in hydrogen bonding between the DNA base pairs are amino groups, carbonyl groups, and imino groups. The C-G base pair forms three hydrogen bonds, while the A-T base pair forms only two hydrogen bonds due to the limited availability of functional groups capable of participating in hydrogen bonding.

Key concepts

Hydrogen Bonding

Hydrogen bonding is a fundamental concept in understanding how DNA maintains its structure. In the context of DNA, hydrogen bonds are the attractive forces between specific pairs of nitrogenous bases. These bonds stabilize the double helix by holding the two strands together. They are weaker than covalent bonds but are vital for maintaining the integrity of the DNA structure while allowing it to unzip for processes like replication and transcription.

Within the DNA molecule:

• Hydrogen bonds occur between adenine (A) and thymine (T) and between guanine (G) and cytosine (C).
• These bonds result from interactions between hydrogen atoms and electronegative atoms such as oxygen and nitrogen.
• In A-T pairs, two hydrogen bonds form, while in G-C pairs, three hydrogen bonds are present, making them stronger and more stable.

Understanding hydrogen bonding in DNA is crucial for grasping how genetic information is stored and transmitted.

Functional Groups

Functional groups are specific groups of atoms within molecules that are responsible for the characteristic chemical reactions of those molecules. In DNA, different functional groups are involved in forming hydrogen bonds. These groups include amino groups, carbonyl groups, and imino groups, each with a distinct role in the structure and function of DNA base pairs.

Here's a breakdown of these groups:

• Amino groups (-NH₂) - Act as hydrogen bond donors by providing the hydrogen atom.
• Carbonyl groups (C=O) - Serve as hydrogen bond acceptors, where the oxygen can accept a hydrogen atom.
• Imino groups (=N-) - Can both donate and accept hydrogen atoms depending on their position in the base pair.

These functional groups dictate how the nitrogenous bases interact through hydrogen bonding, playing a crucial role in the formation of specific and stable base pairings.

DNA Structure

The structure of DNA is iconic, often visualized as a double helix. Each strand of the helix is composed of a sugar-phosphate backbone with nitrogenous bases attached. The arrangement of these bases dictates the genetic instructions necessary for the development and functioning of organisms.

Key features of DNA structure include:

• It consists of two strands running in opposite directions, known as antiparallel orientation.
• Each strand is a sequence of nucleotides bonded via phosphodiester linkages, forming a sugar-phosphate backbone.
• Between the strands lie the nitrogenous bases, which are paired through hydrogen bonding (A pairs with T, G pairs with C), stabilizing the entire structure.

This sophisticated design allows DNA to store vast amounts of biological information, underscoring its pivotal role in life as we know it.

Nitrogenous Bases

Nitrogenous bases are organic molecules that contain nitrogen and are critical components of nucleic acids like DNA. They are the building blocks of the genetic code, forming the "rungs" of the DNA ladder between the sugar-phosphate backbones. In DNA, there are four main types of nitrogenous bases, often abbreviated as A, T, G, and C:

• Adenine (A) - Pairs with thymine and forms two hydrogen bonds.
• Thymine (T) - Pairs with adenine, also forming two hydrogen bonds.
• Guanine (G) - Pairs with cytosine and forms three hydrogen bonds.
• Cytosine (C) - Pairs with guanine, forming three bonds.

The pairing is specific:

• Adenine always pairs with thymine.
• Guanine always pairs with cytosine.

This specificity is due to the shape and chemical properties of the bases, influenced by their functional groups, ensuring accurate replication and expression of genetic information.