Question

Define electronegativity. On what basis did Pauling develop his scale of electronegativities?

Short answer

Electronegativity is the tendency of an atom to attract electrons in a bond. Pauling's scale is based on the energy differences between homonuclear and heteronuclear bonds.

Step-by-step solution

Defining Electronegativity

Electronegativity refers to the tendency of an atom to attract a bonding pair of electrons towards itself when it is bonded to another atom.

Origin of Pauling's Electronegativity Scale

Linus Pauling developed his electronegativity scale by comparing the energies of single bonds between the same two atoms (homonuclear bonds) to those of bonds between different atoms (heteronuclear bonds). He noted that the bond energy in a heteronuclear A-B bond is greater than the average of the bond energies in the homonuclear A-A and B-B bonds. This difference in energy is attributed to the electronegativity difference between the two atoms.

Calculating Electronegativity Difference

Pauling calculated the electronegativity values by using the following empirical relationship: the difference in electronegativity between two atoms A and B is proportional to the square root of the bond energy of A-B minus the geometric mean of the bond energies of A-A and B-B.

Key concepts

Pauling's Electronegativity Scale

Pauling's electronegativity scale is a numerical representation of an atom's ability to attract bonding electrons. It is a critical concept for understanding chemical reactions, as it plays a significant role in determining the nature of chemical bonds.

Linus Pauling, the creator of this scale, devised a method to compare the bond strength between different pairs of atoms. He observed that when two different atoms form a bond, the shared electrons are rarely equally distributed. One atom often exerts a stronger force, pulling the electrons closer to itself.

Using the energy required to break chemical bonds as an index, Pauling established his scale. The insight was that the greater the disparity in electronegativity between two atoms, the more polarized the electron distribution, and the stronger the bond. Pauling's scale is dimensionless and typically ranges from around 0.7 (most electropositive, francium) to 4.0 (most electronegative, fluorine).

Bond Energy

Bond energy is a measure of the amount of energy needed to break one mole of bonds of the same kind, in a gaseous state, and bring the atoms to an unbound state.

It is expressed in kilojoules per mole (kJ/mol) or similarly in other energy units. Analyzing bond energies provides insight into the strength of different chemical bonds and is useful in estimating the energies involved in chemical reactions.

This concept is particularly relevant when discussing Pauling's scale as it is foundational to understanding why different atoms attract electrons with varying strengths. Stronger bonds, with higher bond energy values, often indicate a larger difference in electronegativity between the bonded atoms. This difference is precisely what Pauling used to calibrate his scale, turning the abstract concept of electronegativity into a comparative and quantitative measure that is still widely used in chemistry today.

Chemical Bonding

Chemical bonding is the physical process responsible for the attractive interactions between atoms and molecules. There are three primary types of chemical bonds: ionic, covalent, and metallic.

Electronegativity is pivotal in determining the type of bond formed. For example, a large difference in electronegativity between two atoms typically results in the formation of an ionic bond, whereas a smaller difference leads to a covalent bond, where electrons are shared more equally.

The bond energy, reflecting the strength of the bond, is inherently connected to the type of chemical bond. Ionic bonds tend to have high bond energies, indicative of the strong attraction between the charged atoms. Covalent bonds can vary in strength, and thus bond energy, based on the participating atoms' electronegativities and other factors, such as bond order or the presence of resonance structures.

Understanding these bonding principles is essential for grasping how molecules interact, react, and configure themselves, shaping the physical and chemical properties of substances.