Question

Let's look more closely at the process of hybridization. (a) What is the relationship between the number of hybrid orbitals produced and the number of atomic orbitals used to create them? (b) Do hybrid atomic orbitals form between different p orbitals without involving s orbitals? (c) What is the relationship between the energy of hybrid atomic orbitals and the atomic orbitals from which they are formed?

Short answer

(a) The number of hybrid orbitals equals atomic orbitals used. (b) Generally, s orbitals are involved in hybridization. (c) Hybrid orbitals have intermediate energy.

Step-by-step solution

Understanding Hybrid Orbits

Hybridization involves the mixing of atomic orbitals into new hybrid orbitals (with different energies and shapes) to facilitate bonding with other atoms.

Analyzing Part (a)

For part (a), note that the number of hybrid orbitals produced is equal to the number of atomic orbitals mixed together. This is because each atomic orbital contributes to the formation of a new hybrid orbital.

Analyzing Part (b)

For part (b), hybrid orbitals usually involve s orbitals (e.g., sp, sp2, sp3). p orbitals alone typically do not hybridize without involving s orbitals since hybridization between only p orbitals is less common and less stable.

Analyzing Part (c)

For part (c), the energy of hybrid orbitals is intermediate to the energies of the atomic orbitals that are combined. Thus, they have an energy that is a mix of the original atomic orbitals’ energies.

Key concepts

Atomic Orbitals

Atomic orbitals are fundamental to understanding how atoms form bonds with each other. Each atom contains a central nucleus surrounded by electrons that exist in these orbitals. Atomic orbitals can be thought of as regions in space where there is a high probability of finding an electron. The most common atomic orbitals are the s, p, d, and f orbitals.

• s orbitals: These are spherical in shape and can hold up to two electrons.
• p orbitals: Shaped like dumbbells, p orbitals come in sets of three, each holding two electrons, making a total of six electrons.
• d and f orbitals: These orbitals have more complex shapes and hold more electrons, but they're less involved in the elementary hybridization processes.

The combination of these atomic orbitals forms the basis of our next concept—hybrid orbitals.

Hybrid Orbitals

Hybrid orbitals are formed when atomic orbitals mix or blend to create new orbitals that are more suitable for the formation of covalent bonds. The result is a hybrid orbital that combines characteristics of the original atomic orbitals. A common question is how many hybrid orbitals result from mixing a given set of atomic orbitals. The answer is simple: the number of hybrid orbitals produced is equal to the number of atomic orbitals used.

• sp hybridization: Involves the mixing of one s orbital and one p orbital, forming two identical sp hybrid orbitals.
• sp² hybridization: Here, one s orbital mixes with two p orbitals to create three sp² hybrid orbitals.
• sp³ hybridization: This involves one s orbital and three p orbitals, resulting in four sp³ hybrid orbitals.

Hybridization helps atoms form more stable and stronger bonds, optimizing the geometry and spatial arrangement of electrons.

Energy Levels

Energy levels of hybrid orbitals are an important aspect of the hybridization process. When atomic orbitals combine to form hybrid orbitals, the resulting hybrid orbitals have energy levels that are between the energy levels of the original orbitals. This mixed energy level is what allows hybrid orbitals to effectively participate in bonding.
Here’s a breakdown of what happens:

• The energy of hybrid orbitals lies between the higher and lower energy levels of the original atomic orbitals, making them more stable.
• For instance, when an s orbital (low energy) combines with a p orbital (higher energy) to form sp hybrid orbitals, the energy level of the sp orbital is between that of the s and p orbitals.

This intermediate energy level is crucial as it allows for the formation of stable molecules and contributes to an atom's ability to form different types of bonds.

Bonding

The hybridization of atomic orbitals plays a significant role in the bonding of atoms to form molecules. By combining different atomic orbitals, hybrid orbitals create a versatile and stable framework for forming covalent bonds, which are essential for molecular structure.

• Covalent bonds: These bonds occur when electrons are shared between atoms, aided by hybrid orbitals that allow for an optimal overlap.
• Bond angles and geometry: The spatial arrangement of hybrid orbitals determines the bond angles and overall molecular shape. For example, sp hybridization leads to linear geometry, while sp³ hybridization results in a tetrahedral shape.
• Multiple bonds: Hybrid orbitals are involved in forming multiple bonds, such as double and triple bonds. For example, in a double bond, one is a sigma bond formed by hybrid orbitals, while the other is a pi bond formed by unhybridized p orbitals.

Ultimately, hybrid orbitals facilitate the diverse and complex structures that atoms and molecules can form, leading to the vast array of chemical compounds found in nature.