Question

Let's look more closely at the process of hybridization. (a) What is the relationship between the number of hybrid orbitals produced and the number of atomic orbitals used to create them? (b) Do hybrid atomic orbitals form between different \(p\) orbitals without involving \(s\) orbitals? (c) What is the relationship between the energy of hybrid atomic orbitals and the atomic orbitals from which they are formed?

Short answer

(a) The number of hybrid orbitals equals the number of atomic orbitals used. (b) No, they usually require 's' orbitals. (c) Hybrid orbitals' energy is intermediate between the original orbitals' energies.

Step-by-step solution

Understanding Hybrid Orbital Formation

Hybrid orbitals are formed when atomic orbitals within the same atom mix. The number of hybrid orbitals produced is equal to the number of atomic orbitals mixed. For example, when one 's' orbital mixes with three 'p' orbitals, they form four sp³ hybrid orbitals.

Mixing of Orbitals

Hybrid orbitals usually involve the mixing of different types of atomic orbitals, such as 's' and 'p'. It is uncommon for hybridization to involve only 'p' orbitals without 's' orbitals because the 's' orbital provides spherical symmetry and increases the overlap efficiency with 'p' orbitals.

Energy Considerations in Hybrid Orbitals

The energy of the resulting hybrid orbitals is intermediate between the energies of the atomic orbitals from which they were derived. For instance, if 's' and 'p' orbitals hybridize, the energy of the new hybrid orbitals will be between the energy levels of the original 's' and 'p' orbitals.

Key concepts

Understanding Atomic Orbitals

Atomic orbitals are regions in an atom where electrons are most likely to be found. Each orbital represents a solution to the Schrödinger equation for electrons in an atom. They possess distinct shapes, sizes, and energy levels. Common types of atomic orbitals include:

• s orbitals: These are spherical and can be found at all energy levels.
• p orbitals: Characterized by their dumbbell shape, p orbitals are available from the second energy level (n=2) upwards.
• d and f orbitals: These orbitals have more complex shapes and are found only at higher energy levels (n=3 for d orbitals and n=4 for f orbitals).

The properties and interactions of these orbitals determine the chemical behavior of atoms. When atoms bond, these orbitals can mix, leading to the formation of hybrid orbitals.

The Formation of Hybrid Orbitals

Hybrid orbitals result from the mixing of two or more atomic orbitals from the same atom. The primary purpose of forming hybrid orbitals is to facilitate the bonding between atoms, improving symmetry and orbital overlap. The concept can be broken down as follows:

• Equality in Number: The number of hybrid orbitals formed is always equal to the number of atomic orbitals mixed. For example, if one s and two p orbitals mix, the outcome is three identical sp² hybrid orbitals.
• Inclusion of Different Types: Typically, hybridization involves mixing different types of atomic orbitals, like s and p orbitals, to create new orbitals with shapes that are optimal for bonding.

In general, involving s orbitals in hybridization is crucial because their symmetrical shape aids in better overlap, making the resultant hybrid orbital stronger and more stable. This highlights why s orbitals often mix with p orbitals rather than only having p orbital interactions.

Energy Levels and Hybrid Orbital Formation

Hybrid orbitals exhibit energy levels that are intermediate relative to their constituent atomic orbitals. The concept of energy levels in this context is key to understanding why hybrid orbitals form:

• Intermediate Energy: When atomic orbitals hybridize, the resultant hybrid orbitals have energy levels that lie between the energies of the original orbitals. For example, in an sp³ hybridization involving one s and three p orbitals, the energy of the sp³ orbitals falls between that of the s and p orbitals.
• Stability via Hybridization: Hybridization tends to lower the energy gap and creates more stable bonding environments by facilitating effective orbital overlap.

Thus, hybridization not only optimizes bonding geometry but also aligns energy levels in a fashion that increases the stability and reactivity of molecules.