Question

In flushing and cleaning columns used in liquid chromatography to remove adsorbed contaminants, a series of solvents is used. Hexane \(\left(\mathrm{C}_{6} \mathrm{H}_{14}\right),\) chloroform \(\left(\mathrm{CHCl}_{3}\right),\) methanol \(\left(\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{OH}\right),\) and water are passed through the column in that order. Rationalize the order in terms of intermolecular forces and the mutual solubility (miscibility) of the solvents.

Short answer

The order of solvents used to flush and clean columns in liquid chromatography (hexane, chloroform, methanol, and water) is based on their increasing polarity and strength of intermolecular forces, allowing for efficient removal of contaminants. Hexane, as a non-polar hydrocarbon, is used first for its London dispersion forces and immiscibility with water. Chloroform is passed next due to its increasing polarity and presence of dipole-dipole interactions. Methanol comes third with its hydrogen bonding capabilities and miscibility with chloroform. Lastly, water is passed through the column for its strong hydrogen bonding capacity and miscibility with methanol. This order enables a gradual and controlled column flushing process in liquid chromatography.

Step-by-step solution

Identify Intermolecular Forces

First, we need to identify the intermolecular forces (IMF) present in each solvent. Intermolecular forces are the forces that hold molecules together and determine their physical properties. 1. Hexane: As a non-polar hydrocarbon, the primary IMF in hexane is London dispersion forces. 2. Chloroform: Being a polar molecule with a dipole moment, chloroform experiences both dipole-dipole interactions and London dispersion forces. 3. Methanol: As a polar molecule with a hydroxyl group, methanol displays hydrogen bonding, dipole-dipole interactions, and London dispersion forces. 4. Water: Water is also a polar molecule with hydroxyl groups. Like methanol, it experiences hydrogen bonding, dipole-dipole interactions, and London dispersion forces.

Assess Miscibility and Rationalize the Order

Next, we will assess the miscibility of these solvents with each other and rationalize the given order based on their intermolecular forces and solubilities. 1. Hexane is passed through the column first because it is non-polar and can dissolve other non-polar contaminants best owing to its London dispersion forces. Moreover, hexane is immiscible with water. 2. Chloroform is passed after hexane because it is less polar than methanol and water but more polar than hexane. Therefore, it can dissolve some polar contaminants due to its dipole-dipole interactions. Mixing with hexane is also favorable because of the relatively similar strength of intermolecular forces in both solvents. 3. Methanol comes next in the order. As a polar solvent with hydrogen bonding capabilities, it can dissolve polar contaminants even further than chloroform. Methanol is miscible with chloroform due to the presence of dipole-dipole interactions. 4. Finally, water is passed through the column as the most polar solvent. Its strong hydrogen bonding capacity can dissolve polar contaminants that methanol might not have removed. Water is miscible with methanol due to the hydrogen bonding capabilities in both solvents. In conclusion, the solvents are ordered based on their increasing polarity and strength of intermolecular forces, which allows efficient removal of contaminants in a gradual and controlled manner during the column flushing process in liquid chromatography.

Key concepts

Intermolecular Forces

Intermolecular forces are the attractions between molecules that affect properties like boiling point, melting point, and solubility. These forces are crucial when understanding liquid chromatography, where solvents are chosen based on their ability to interact with molecules of interest. Here are the primary types:

• London dispersion forces: All molecules experience these weak forces due to temporary fluctuations in their electron distributions. They are dominant in non-polar molecules like hexane, hence hexane’s low boiling point.
• Dipole-dipole interactions: These occur in polar molecules where partial charges attract each other. For instance, chloroform, which has a permanent dipole, interacts with other polar substances more strongly than hexane.
• Hydrogen bonding: This is a special type of dipole-dipole interaction found in molecules with H-F, H-O, or H-N bonds. Methanol and water both participate in hydrogen bonding, making them effective at dissolving polar substances.

Understanding how these forces work will guide the selection of solvents in processes like chromatography.

Solvent Miscibility

Solvent miscibility describes how well different solvents mix, which is crucial for their role in chromatography. When solvents are miscible, they form a homogeneous solution. Here's an insight into the miscibility of the solvents in our example:

• Hexane and water: Hexane is non-polar and water is polar, so they do not mix well. This is due to the fact that water's strong hydrogen bonds cannot mix with hexane's London forces.
• Hexane and chloroform: Both are somewhat miscible. Despite chloroform being polar, its dispersion and dipole forces allow some mixing with hexane.
• Chloroform and methanol: Both solvents can mix due to dipole-dipole interactions, magnified by methanol’s hydrogen bonding capabilities.
• Methanol and water: They are fully miscible because they can form strong hydrogen bonds with each other.

Molecular compatibility determines miscibility, impacting solvent choice in chromatography for effective contaminant removal.

Polarity of Solvents

Polarity in solvents refers to the separation of electric charge leading to a molecule having a dipole moment. This property significantly affects solvent behavior in chromatography:

• Hexane: Non-polar, thus it is effective at dissolving other non-polar substances. It's used first in liquid chromatography to flush out non-polar contaminants.
• Chloroform: Has moderate polarity because of its structure with a partial positive hydrogen and more electronegative chlorine atoms. Perfect for cleaning out medium polar substances when used after hexane.
• Methanol: This solvent has high polarity due to its hydroxy group. It can dissolve polar contaminants, complementing its action upon following chloroform.
• Water: The most polar in the sequence, making it very effective at thoroughly cleansing residual polar contaminants thanks to its extensive hydrogen bonding.

Each solvent's unique polarity enables selective cleaning of various contaminant types during liquid chromatography, with the solvent sequence intended to exploit these polarities effectively.