Question

A well-established biological correlate for major depressive disorder involves a. decreased testosterone b. decreased protein kinase c. increased testosterone d. increased sodium e. none of the above

Short answer

Answer: None of the above.

Step-by-step solution

Major Depressive Disorder

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a common mental health disorder characterized by persistent feelings of sadness, loss of interest in normal activities, and overall impaired quality of life. It is a complex illness with numerous contributing factors, including genetic, environmental, and biochemical components. It's important to know the correct biological correlate for MDD to help us in understanding its relationship with each of the given choices.

Option (a): Decreased Testosterone

Testosterone is a hormone found in both males and females, although it is more prevalent in males. There is some evidence suggesting that low testosterone levels may be associated with depression in men, particularly in older men or those with hypogonadism. However, this option does not describe a well-established biological correlate for major depressive disorder across both sexes.

Option (b): Decreased Protein Kinase

Protein kinases are enzymes that play essential roles in various cellular processes. The relationship between decreased protein kinase and major depressive disorder is not well-established, and it's not considered a well-known biological correlate for MDD.

Option (c): Increased Testosterone

This option contradicts the information given in option (a). As discussed earlier, there is some evidence suggesting a link between low testosterone and depression in men. However, increased testosterone is not considered a well-established biological correlate for major depressive disorder.

Option (d): Increased Sodium

Sodium is an essential nutrient that plays a role in maintaining the body's fluid balance, nerve function, and muscle control. While there is some evidence suggesting an association between altered sodium levels and mood disorders, it is not a well-established biological correlate for major depressive disorder.

Option (e): None of the above

Given the information provided and based on the analysis of the other options, the most appropriate answer is "none of the above." One well-established biological correlate for major depressive disorder includes altered levels of neurotransmitters such as serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine, which play a crucial role in mood regulation. However, none of the options given align with this well-established biological correlate.

Conclusion

The correct answer is "none of the above." The well-established biological correlate for major depressive disorder involves altered levels of neurotransmitters, which is not mentioned in any of the available options.